Macroalgae

Compounds

Mechanism of action

Virus

In vitro/In vivo

Reference

Red Alga

Nothogenia fastigiata

Sulfated xylomannan

Inhibition of replication

HSV-1 and HSV-2

In vitro  (Vero cells, HEp-2 and BHK-21)

(Pujol et al., 1995)

Bostrychia montagnei

Sulfated galactans

Inhibition of replication

HSV 1 and 2

In vitro  (Vero, African green monkey kidney cell line)

(Duarte et al., 2001)

Asparagopsis armata

Sulfated galactans

Inhibition of replication

HIV

In vitro (MT4 and CEM cell lines)

(Haslin et al., 2001)

Gracilaria corticata

Sulfated galactans

Inhibition of attachment

HSV-1 and HSV-2

In vitro  (Vero, African green monkey kidney cell line)

(Mazumder et al., 2002)

Gymnogongrus torulosus

DL- hybrid galactans

Inhibition of the binding of envelope glycoprotein with the cell receptor

HSV-2, dengue virus 2

In vitro  (Vero, African green monkey kidney cell line)

(Pujol et al., 2002)

Gymnogongrus griffithsiae and Cryptonemia crenulata

κ,ι,ν-carrageenan carrageenan G3D and the DL-galactan hybrid C2S-3

Inhibition of adsorption and internalization

Dengue virus

Invitro (Vero cells, human hepatoma cell line HepG2, human diploid foreskin fibroblast cell line PH and The C6/36 HT mosquito cell line from Aedes Albopictus)

(Talarico et al., 2007)

Sebdenia polydactyla

Sulfated xylomannans

HSV-1

In vitro  (Vero, African green monkey kidney cell line)

(Ghosh et al., 2009b)

Euchema denticulatum,

Gigartina acicularis and Kappaphycus cottonii

Carrageenan

Inhibition of attachment

HSV-1 and Poliovirus

In vitro  (Vero, African green monkey kidney cell line)

(Montanha et al., 2009)

Grateloupia indica,

Scinaia hatei and Gracilaria corticata

Sulfated polysaccharides

Inhibition of adsorption and internalization

Dengue virus

In vitro  (Vero, African green monkey kidney cell line)

(Pujol et al., 2012)

Acanthophora specifira

Carrageenan

Inhibition of viral

replication

HSV-1 and RVFV

In vitro  (Vero, African green monkey kidney cell line)

(Gomaa and Elshoubaky, 2016)

Solieria filiformis

Sulfated Polysaccharides

Measles virus

In vitro  (Vero, African green monkey kidney cell line)

(Morán-Santibañez et al., 2016)

Rhodymenia pseudopalmata, Solieria filiformis and Hydropuntia cornea

Polysaccharides

-

HSV-1

In vitro  (Vero, African green monkey kidney cell line)

(Bedoux et al., 2017)

Brown Alga

Gigartina acicularis,

Euchema denticulatum,

Kappaphycus cottonii

Carrageenan

Inhibition of attachment and interference with the subsequent stage replication

HSV-1 and Poliovirus

In vitro (Vero, African green monkey kidney cell line)

(Montanha et al., 2009)

Sphacelaria indica

Sulfated polysaccharides

Interference with virion particles or masking viral structures

HSV-1

In vitro

(Bandyopadhyay et al., 2011)

Stoechospermum marginatum and Cystoseira indica

Sulfated polysaccharide

Inhibition of adsorption and internalization

Dengue virus

In vitro (Vero, African green monkey kidney cell line)

(Pujol et al., 2012)

Sargassum mcclurei; Sargassum polycystum; Turbinara ornata.

Fucoidans

Inhibition of viral entry

HIV

In vitro (HEK293T cells and U373-CD4-CXCR4 cells)

(Thuy et al., 2015)

Laminaria japonica

Polysaccharide

upregulation of IRF3 signaling-mediated IFN-a production

Respiratory syncytial virus

In vitro (HEK293 cells)

(Cao et al., 2016)

Sargassum swartzii

Fucoidan

Reverse transcriptase inhibition

HIV-1

In vitro (Human peripheral blood mononuclear cells)

(Dinesh et al., 2016)

Hydroclathrus clathratus

Carrageenan

Inhibition of replication

HSV-1 and RVFV

In vitro (Vero cells

GMK cells)

(Gomaa and Elshoubaky, 2016)

Macrocystis pyrifera,

Eisenia

arborea,

Pelvetia compressa,

Sulfated Polysaccharides

-

Measles virus

In vitro (Vero, African green monkey kidney cell line)

(Morán-Santibañez et al., 2016)

Sargassum fluitans

Polysaccharides

-

HSV-1

In vitro (Vero cell  line)

(Bedoux et al., 2017)

Fucus vesiculosus

Fucoidan

Inhibition of replication

Hepatitis B

In vivo (HepG2.2.15 cells) and In vitro

(C57BL/6 mice)

(Li et al., 2017)

Kjellmaniella crassifolia

Fucoidan

Inhibition of neuraminidase

Influenza A virus

In vitro (MDCK cells and A549 cells)

(Wang et al., 2017b)

Laminaria japonica

Acidic polysaccharide (LJ04)

Inhibition of apoptosis and induction of IFN-β expression

enterovirus 71

In vitro (African green monkey kidney (MA104),

human rhabdomyosarcoma (RD) and human embryonic kidney (HEK) cell lines)

(Yue et al., 2017)

Dictyota bartayesiana and Turbinaria decurrens

Fucoidan

-

HIV-1

In vitro  (Blasted Peripheral blood mononuclear cells)

(Sanniyasi et al., 2019)

Laminaria japonica

Fucoidans

-

Noroviruses

In vitro

(RAW cells) and in vivo (Mice)

(Kim et al., 2020)

Saccharina japonica

Fucoidans (RPI27 and RPI-28)

-

SARS-CoV-2

In vitro (Vero-E6 cells and Vero-CCL81)

(Kwon et al., 2020)

Green Alga

Monostroma latissimum

Rhamnan sulfate (RS)

Inhibition of adsorption and viral replication

HSV-1, human cytomegalovirus and HIV-1

In vitro (Vero, African green monkey kidney cell line and human embryonic lung cells)

(Lee et al., 1999)

Chaetomorpha crassa,

Chaetomorpha spiralis,  Caulerpa brachypus, Caulerpa scalpelliformis,Caulerpa  okamurae,Codium fragile,  Codium adhaerens,

Codium latum Monostroma nitidum,

Sulfated polysaccharides

Inhibition of the early stages and late steps of replication

HSV-1

In vitro (Vero cell line)

(Lee et al., 2004)

Ulva lactuca

Sulfated polysaccharide

Inhibition of viral adsorption

JEV

In vitro (Vero, African green monkey kidney cell line) and In vivo (Female C3H/HeN mice)

(Chiu et al., 2012)

Caulerpa racemosa

Sulfated polysaccharide

Inhibition of adsorption and internalization

Dengue virus

In vitro (Vero, African green monkey kidney cell line)

(Pujol et al., 2012)

Ulva intestinalis

Sulfated polysaccharides

-

Measles virus

 In vitro (Vero cell line)

(Morán-Santibañez et al., 2016)

Enteromorpha compressa

Chemically modified polysaccharide (SU1F1)

Inhibition of replication

HSV

In vitro (human larynx epithelial cells carcinoma)

(Lopes et al., 2017)

Monostroma latissimum

Sulfated rhamnan

Inhibition of adsorption and viral replication

Enterovirus 71

In vitro (Vero, African green monkey kidney cell line) and in vivo (ICR mice)

(Wang et al., 2018)

Monostroma nitidum

Rhamnan Sulfate

Inhibition of adsorption and entry steps

Influenza A virus

In vitro (Vero, MDCK, and HeLa cells) and in vivo (Female BALB/c mice)

(Terasawa et al., 2020)

Monostroma nitidum

Sulfated glucuronorhamnan

Inhibition of viral replication before or during viral adsorption

Enterovirus 71

In vitro (Vero and Madin-Darby canine kidney cell line) In vivo (ICR mice)

(Wang et al., 2020)